History

Periods:

• Slavs
• Ancient times
• Kyiv Rus
• In Structure of Lithuania and Poland
• Cossacks
• Liberation War of the Middle of XVII Century
• Ukrainian State at the End of XVII Century

Slavs

During the first millennium B.C. Slavs played the leading role in development of civilization of modern Ukrainian forefathers. Some other ethnic groups also significantly influenced ethnogenezis of Ukrainians, i.e. Skythian, Baltic and German tribes. At the beginning of new era the territory of Slavs inhabiting significantly widened. In the chronicles they are mentioned as ants and sclaves. They had common language, way of life, custom and persuasions. At one and the same time they were different tribes, each of them had their leaders, military detachments and policy. Despite that after particular time ants disappeared from the political map of the Southern Europe their tradition continued to exist. Successors of ants began to occupy big territories.

Intensive collapse of patriarchal traditions was observed in 7 and 8 centuries with the development of East Slavonic community. Inequality in distribution of property in the community, which began to distinguish the formation of social hierarchy, had intensified. These processes especially increased on the territory of Middle Dnipro and surrounding lands. Archeologists found the evidence of rapid development of arable farming, cattle farming, handicrafts and trade. Soon the political and economic centers of Slavonic tribes, for example, Kyiv, were established. During 6-9 centuries A.D. about 14 unions of East Slavonic tribes occupied the territory of Ukraine. Later they became the basis to create Rus. At the end of 9 century on the territory of Slavonic tribes the conditions to form early feudal states established. Modern Kyiv, Chernigiv and Pereyaslav were the centers of this territory.

Ancient times

The first man (archanthropos) appeared at the territory of Ukraine about 1 million years ago in palaeolithis. Archanthropos, for sure, came from western regions of South Asia and Balkans. Soon the first Neanderthal men appeared (about 135-150 thousand years ago). They were more mentally and physically developed and had ties of relationship. Next were Cro-Magnon men the first representatives of “homo sapience”. They appeared at out territory approximately 30 thousand years ago.

During the era of middle palaeolithis the quantity of population grew significantly and it was impossible to feed everybody only with the help of hunting. That is why primitive men had to learn fishing, pick-up berries and plants and also domesticate animals. During neolithis people learned to work the land, breed cattle and produce tableware of stone. Primitive system of social formation on the basis of matriarchy also formed during this period.

In Bronze era (3-4 millenniums B.C.) the productivity of labor increased and there were important changes in primitive society because of its stratification by property indications and ideological changes. Trypillia culture quickly spread at the significant territories and reached high level of development.

Kyiv Rus

An ancient chronicles tell us, in 882, Oleg Prince of Novgorod after princes Askold and Dir were murdered, occupied the throne of Kyiv. He became the ruler of Kyiv Rus, the first state of ancient Slavs, which soon turned into one of the leading countries of the Medieval Europe and began to play an important role in the political life of the continent. Kyiv Rus also acted as a kind of protective barrier between European civilization and nomadic tribes of East. Kyiv became capital of the state. Multi-ethnic Ancient Rus was a monarchy. After Kyiv was announced political center of Rus, Prince Oleg (and also his successors) took care about consolidation of Kyiv neighboring principalities under the condition that the power of central principality administrative establishments should predominate on the whole territory. At the end of 10 century all East Slavs and the significant quantity of other peoples from the Black Sea to the White Sea, from Carpathian Mountains to Volga River were under Kyiv Rus ruling. Huge size of territory determined presence (in particular frames) of different languages and cultures, which, in future should lead to the tendencies of centrifugal force development.

Prince’s armed forces in Kyiv Rus played a role of state elite up to the beginning of 11 century. Senior combatants also were prince’s advisors in the most important state affairs and occupied all leading administrative and judicial positions. Under the ruling of Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054) they performed only military functions and the administrative and legal affairs were delegated to boyars (old ethnic aristocracy).

The main concern of Kyiv princes in 9-10 century was to increase economic and political power of the state. They strengthen cities, regulated legal norms and fiscal system and also arranged responsibilities of subordinating population. The first attempt to quit paganism and to introduce Christianity was undertaken during Princess Olga’s ruling (about 946). But officially as a state religion Christianity was introduced at Rus only in 988, by Prince Volodymyr Sviatoslavovych.

Establishment of the ancient Rus state was under the ruling of Prince Sviatoslav’s son Volodymyr (978-1015). Economic and political power of the state, Prince’s authority and legal organization increased under his ruling. Successful military operations also widened the boarders of Rus territory.

Process of ancient Rus state formation ended at the beginning of 11 century under Yaroslav the Wise ruling. There were the times of the greatest development of Kyiv Rus. International authority of the country grew due to dynasty relationships and Prince’s diplomacy. Yaroslav directed significant efforts on civil war cessation, which began Volodymyr died, and on territories of the country protection from the invasion of nomadic tribes. In times of Yaroslav’s ruling significance of cities in economic and cultural life of the state increased, relations between different regions were strengthened and it contributed into the development of trade, agriculture and handicrafts. The first ancient Rus Code – “Russkaya Pravda” – the collection of laws was worked out. Unfortunately Prince’s successors carried out intestine wars that, in the end, undermined the unity of the Rus state.

Only at the beginning of 12 century Volodymyr Monomakh (1113-1125) succeeded to cease these encounters. Power of Kyiv a s a capital increased again under his ruling. Kyiv prince’s power spread on main principalities and other princes. Under his initiative the meeting of princes was called to decide important state problems and disputes. Internal and foreign condition of state became stable. This was the period of strengthening in Kyiv Rus of all characteristics of medieval social and political system with its significant feudal property, particular ideological, religious and political directions.

In Structure of Lithuania and Poland

Military and political invasion of Lithuania and Poland to the Ukrainian lands began in 1330-1340, when Great Lithuanian Prince Liubart seized Volyn. Distribution of lands of Halych-Volyn Principality between two states was finished during Lithuanian and Polish war of 1351-1352, when Halytsiya was under the power of Polish king. Later Western Volyn, Holmska and Belzska lands also were given to crown of Poland. During times of Olgerd successor of Liubart, Podolska, Kyivska, Severska and Pereyaslavska oblasts also became part of the Lithuanian state. Local population did not show significant opposition to Lithuanian power spreading on the Ukrainian lands. It could be explained by the fact that government in Vilno did not try to break traditional social and political institutions and economic system existed that time. The state did not want to interfere into spiritual life of Ukrainian population. Moreover, Lithuanians effectively adopted Ukrainian cultural and religious traditions. In 1458 separate Kyiv mother country was formed and it became the additional impulse for centrifugal development of Ukrainian lands. Possibility of West, Greece and Byzantium influence on orthodox Kyiv created preconditions for learning and adoption of the most important achievements of European civilization on Ukrainian lands. Taking into account the necessity to resist German knights, khans of Golden Horde and pressure of opposition inside the country, Lithuanian and Polish governments formed union supported by dynasty marriage. Conditions of the union stipulated integration of the Great Lithuanian Principality into Kingdom of Poland. At the same time it was necessary to undertake measures for political centralization of Lithuania. In particular, civil independence of Volyn, Novgorod-Severkiy, Podolskyi and Kyiv principalities was abolished. That time they subordinated to deputies of the Great Prince of Lithuania. After, despite particular success Ukrainian princes failed to restore former independence. At one and the same time political and cultural influence of local princes and boyars in the state were rather significant. In particular, Ukrainian was the official language of Lithuania. Traditional norms and self-ruled establishments acted in the state. Vilno also had to take into account position of the Ukrainian political elite in interior and foreign policy. All this determined relative interior stability of Lithuanian and Ukrainian state.

But soon Lithuanian and catholic element began to predominate in the state. Of course, it resulted to particular resistance of local aristocracy. At the end of 15 – beginning of 16 centuries there were several insurrections, participants of which were princes I. Olshanskyi, M. Olelkovych, F. Belskyi (1481) and M. Glynskyi (1508).

Cossacks

For the first time Cossacks are mentioned in written sources at the end of 15 century. Appearance of Cossacks played prominent role in the historical destiny of Ukraine. Cossacks were representatives of social class of free people. They guarded their land and defended boarders from Turkish and Tatar invasion.

In the middle of 16 century Cossacks created their military and political organization – Zaporizhzhia Sich. It had own military-administrative system based on principles of Cossacks democracy. Cossacks formed specific political establishments like military council, Zaporizhzhia Sich and the highest executive and legislative bodies with appropriate legal procedures.

Organization that Cossacks created was rather numerous. They seized fortresses, liberated cities and villages and established their ruling in Kyiv, Volyn and Bratslav oblasts.

In 1633, Polish government under the influence of insurrections legally recognized Orthodox Church existence (Petro Mohyla was Metropolitan), but in 1638, Warsaw court abolished preliminary conquered Cossacks privileges, including own legislation, election of commanders and registrar limitation.

Defeat of Cossacks insurrections of the end of 16 – beginning of 17 centuries made worse the unhappy state of Ukrainians. Cossacks leaders and thousands of insurgent Cossacks and peasants were crushed and their lands – re-distributed. “Golden equal” preserved at the beginning of 17 century appeared to be equal only for Polish magnates and landowners who did not learn lessons of 16-17 centuries’ events. Ukrainian society gradually increased forces before decisive conflict with powerful state machine of Rzeczpospolita.

Liberation War of the Middle of XVII Century

Liberation war of the middle of XVII century was an event of great significance. It fundamentally changed further course of the Ukrainian history. The most important result was the creation of the Ukrainian state.

War began in 1648 with Sich seized by insurgents and Bogdan Khmelnytskyi (1595-1657) sotnik from Chygyryn proclaimed Hetman of Zaporizhzhia Army. News about event at Zaporizhzhia quickly spread at Ukrainian lands and contributed to involvement of the widest strata of population into insurrection. Success of insurrection was ensured by new elected Hetman’s activity directed on spreading of insurrection in regions, attraction of registrar Cossacks to the side of insurgents, creation of national army, avoidance of war conflicts with Polish army.

At the beginning of Liberation war two processes were evidenced: formation of state and full change of social and economic relations principal model. Triumphal attack at Cossacks army in spring and summer 1648, and liberation from Polish landowners of significant territories of Ukraine (Korsun and Zhovti Vody battles), Polish defeat under Pyliavtsy and Cossack march to outskirts of Lviv and Zamostia defined main changes in Hetman’s political plans.

The idea of Cossack autonomy in the frames of the Kingdom of Poland was not as popular as a persuasion in necessity of Rzeczpospolita full defeat and own country foundation prerequisites for which were established at the end of 1648 at the most of Ukrainian territories. In such a way, during June – November 1648, process of national state institutions formation was almost finished in Central, Southern and Eastern regions, at the same time it was in its active phase at Western territories. Old administrative divisions were changed with new one – by sotnia, Cossacks court arrangement and legal procedures were introduced and national army created. Serious changes were observed in social structure of population. Cossacks played leading role in overthrow of Polish state power and foundation of Ukrainian state institutions.

Social struggle resulted to peasants war, which for the first time in the history of Ukraine covered the most part of its territory and appeared to be an important factors in national revolution development. Peasants refused to perform numerous conscriptions in favor of their masters (especially corvee). Liberation war opened possibilities of Cossacks status granting to peasants and middle and middle classes. During that time Cossacks possessed a lot of rights and privileges. At the same time Cossacks’ officers strengthened their positions during the years of war. The chose the way of pecuniary enrichment and wanted to secure the rights on owing of land and production enterprises.

Lessons of war allowed Bogdan Khmelnitskyi at the beginning of 1649, made particular amendment to his political program. Uniting of all ethnic Ukrainian lands into the national state was he first task of that time. New program also stipulated for recognition of social properties and Hetman’s power consolidation.

Period from 1649 to 1652 was characterized by effective efforts of young state concerning its own position strengthening at international arena. Hetman’s government concluded military and political union with Crimean Khanate concluded effective negotiations with Moscow and Warsaw and established diplomatic elations with Moldavia and Transilvania.

Extremely disadvantageous geopolitical situation negatively influenced Khmelnitskyi’s plans. In August 1649, Hetman had to conclude Zborovsky peace to prevent the union between Crimean Khan Girey and King of Poland Yan Kazimir. Dispite this arrangement recognize Cossacks’ state existing, their territories were limited by Bratislavskaya, Kyivska and Chtrnigivska oblasts. At the same time numerous social achievements of Ukrainian people were abolished. As an answer Cossacks and peasants took arms again. During main time of 1650, insurrections risen in numerous regions. Civil war threat was avoided owe to Khmalnitskyi’s policy.

Ruling circles of Rzeczpospolita tried to solve the Ukrainian problem by means of force. In 1651 Polish army assumed the offensive. The new military campaign began and at Berestechko finished almost by catastrophe taking into account unexpected actions of Crimea Khan. In September 1651 at Bila Tserkiva new agreement was signed. Its conditions limited autonomia and called displeasure of Ukrainian people. Wave of patriotic protests enveloped Ukraine. On 23 May, 1652, Bogdan Khmelnitskyi mobilized army and gained outstanding victory near Knut village in the battle with Polish army. But it was the last victory.

In 1653, unti-Ukrainian coalition of Rzeczpospolita, Moldavia, Walachia and Transilvania was formed. Relations with Crimea was very complicated. Under such conditions in Hetman’s political plans relations with Russia received special character. Orientation on Moscow, from Hetman’s point of view, could contribute to support of changes which Ukraine undergone that time: deliverance from Polish power, acting of Ukraine as independent state and future joining of all Ukrainian lands under Hetman’s authority. After long negotiations Ukraine agreed with Moscow protection. On 1 October 1653, the appropriate decision was adopted by Zemsky Sobor, the highest representative body of Moscow state. On 8 January 1654, participants of Pereyaslavska Rada agreed Zaporizhzhia Army to be subordinated to Tsar of Moscow.

Present agreement kept the existing in Ukraine political system, model of social and economic relations and the right to perform independent interior policy. The partial control was set only over foreign policy activity and tax policy. Agreement of 1654, ratified foundation of confederation - military union. Nevertheless, as a part of Moscow monarchy state Ukraine was deprived the perspectives of own development.

After 1654, the new stage of Liberation war began. The aim of the Ukrainian state remained invariable: termination of Rzeczpospolita rule and uniting of Ukrainian ethnic lands in Cossacks state. As a result of errors of Moscow government concerning estimation of military and political situation militarty actions of 1654-1655, lead to Bratslavshchina devastation. Hetman Khmelnitskyi began to look for allies among other countries. He succeeded to significantly improve relations with Crimea and Turkey, to revise relations with Transilvania and to conclude important alliance with Sweden.

Almost at the same time Moscow confused by success of Swedish army, in August 1656, signed truce with Rzeczpospolita in Vilno and started military actions against Charles X. After receiving of information on Moscow foreign political course had been changed, Bogdan Khmelnitskyi, recognizing that it is destructive for the program of Ukrainian lands uniting, began to look for ways of anti-Polish coalition with Sweden and Transilvania. Special expectations he put on the success of Ukrainian and Transilvanian march against Poland, which, unfortunately, came to a tragic end for Georgiy II Rakotsy’s army. Failure of march meant the crash of the plans of Ukrainian leader to win the victory against Rzeczpospolita in coalition with Sweden and Transilvania. At one and the same time interior situation in Ukraine became complicated. Hetman’s influence on the state of affairs in the country decreased because his health became worse. Social tension and fight for power of different groups of interests of Cossacks leaders significantly rose. Tsar’s government furthered actions on autonomous rights of Ukraine to be limited. In this difficult period Hetman Bogdan Khmelnitskyi died on 27 July, 1657.

Ukrainian State at the End of XVII Century

Hetman State founded by Bogdan Khmelnitskyi had great potential to gain independence. Nevertheless, taking numerous reasons into account, this potential was not realized. At the end of 17 century internal problems tearing apart Ukrainian society, received additional stimulus as a result of purposeful tsarism policy. Right after Khmelnitskyi’s death the fight between some hetmans and aspirants on hetmanship started. For many years country fallen into the state of civil war, political crisis and economic decline.

Complicated social and political situation asked for rapid decision of the existing problems. But political mistakes, unreasoned actions in social sphere only intensified contradictions existed in society. New Hetman I. Vygotskyi (? – 1664) decided to create oligarchic republic and quickly lost the support of the most part of Cossacks.

Zaporizhzhia and some military groups at Levoberezhna Ukraine did not support Hetman’s course and became member of opposition. Interested in Cossacks state weakening tsarism also did everything possible to stir up civil instability and government of neighboring countries used the situation to their interests.

During civil war of spring 1658, in Ukraine the Ukrainian leader (for the first time the history of the country) addressed to other country for help (not to provide for independence of own country, but to fight interior opposition and insurgents). He enlisted the support of Tatar Horde to crush detachment of insurgents and Cossacks under M. Pushkar and E. Barabash leadership and decided to renew allied relations with Rzeczpospolita. Gadiach agreement of 16 September 1658, stipulated for Cossacks Ukraine as an autonomy returning to crown of Poland. Conditions of deal changed the existing political system of Hetman’s power. In social and economic aspect they returned pre-war form of land ownership. Changes of foreign policy course and brutal measures at Levoberezhna Ukraine only increased Cossacks displeasure with I. Vygotskyi’s leadership and created precedent of splitting of the state. There was elite which put under the threat territorial integrity of the country. With time passing the inspiration of Levoberezhnaya Ukraine representative to co-operate with Moscow and inclination of Pravoberezhnaya Ukraine to co-operate with Warsaw became more evident.

At the end of 17 century there were significant changes in social life of Cossacks in Ukraine. Hetman’s state was the complicated social body which population consisted mostly of peasants won their freedoms with arms in their hands and during particular period of time had the right on land. But, taking historic conditions into account, everything was subordinated to the interests of the highest stages of Cossacks elite and they were privileged class. They receive the right to owe the land, to be engaged in production and to take part in political life of the state. Ukraine’s subordination to Moscow made an influence in its economic development. In particular, definite changes happened in foreign trade and economic relations of Hetman’s state. Country painfully saved from traditional Western trade ways and sales markets. Gradually all these thing were re-oriented to Moscow.

Ukrainian state institutions formed during the years of Liberation war continued to function at the territory of Hetman’s state during the second half of 17 century. But the Russian government began to introduce limitations with the following abolishing of traditional military and political system of Ukraine. Moscow’s aggression also touched Ukrainian Orthodox Church which in 1686, was subordinated to Moscow Patriarchy.

Decades passed since 1654, pushed gradually but constantly the processes of Ukrainian state lost of its ethnic peculiarities, when all social and political institutions were abolished.